The Romantic Idealization of American Indians in Early American
Literature
One of the major controversies in the acquisition and
development of America as an independent nation was the dilemma
concerning the people who were already here. As a Christian
people, it would have been sinful for our founders to just
'take' the land from other peoples. Therefore, the settlers and
the succeeding generations began romanticizing the Indians,
depicting them as either noble children of nature in need of
civilization and Christianity or as ferocious, demonic savages
in need of extermination. Neither view exhibited the reality of
the Native Americans. From the earliest American writings, this
image of the Indian, either as inherently noble or inherently
evil, has persisted in our culture to the present. In
Columbus' letter regarding his first voyage to the Americas, he
describes a virtual Garden of Eden. While he does not describe
the natives he encounters in great detail, it is safe to assume
that he did not find them to be menacing or ferocious savages
based on the content of his letter. Columbus states that he
"sent two men inland to learn if there were a king or great
cities" and that the men traveled for three days and "found an
infinity of small hamlets and people without number" (Norton
26). Surely Columbus would not have sent two men among the
Indians if he had any indication that the Indians would not be
peaceful and welcoming.
However in his letter to Ferdinand and Isabella, Columbus' view
of the natives has changed. In pleading his plight to his
sovereigns, Columbus says he is in "daily expectation of death"
and "encompassed about by a million savages, full of cruelty"
(Norton 28). These contrary and romanticized depictions of the
Native Americans would be picked up and even expanded on by
later American writers.
William Bradford carried on peaceful and friendly relations with
the Indians that lived where they set up Plymouth Plantation.
The Pilgrims made a treaty with the chief Massasoit which
continued "24 years" (Norton 86). Additionally, Bradford
transfers romantic qualities to Squanto, an Indian who had been
captured and taken to England. Bradford says of Squanto that
there are "scarce any left alive besides himself" which
instigates the "vanishing Indian" myth that Cooper later uses
for his narrative (Norton 87). Bradford also idealizes Squanto
by referring to him as a "special instrument sent of God for
[the Pilgrims] good" (Norton 87). The writings of John Smith
further emphasize the ambiguous feelings of the Europeans
towards the Indians. When he and his men were in danger of
starving to death, Smith describes how God "changed the hearts
of the savages" so as to provide food for the Europeans (Norton
45). The indication here is clear: that the Indians are 'savage'
by nature but all that is needed to make them good people is
Christianity. When Smith is later taken hostage by Powhatan
and his tribe, he narrates how he was "kindly feasted and well
used" (Norton 49). But despite this, Smith remains fearful of
the Indians, no matter how much he tries to make himself sound
bold and unafraid. The fact that he is afraid of the Indians and
their personal nature is seen through Smith's description of the
Indians in language and imagery that is horrifying. He depicts
them as "devils," "fiends," having a "hellish voice" and
entertaining him with "strange and fearful conjurations" (Norton
50). Smith is definitely romanticizing the Indians by making
them seem as if they are demons from Hell.
These three romantic idealizations of the Indian (noble warrior,
bloodthirsty savage, and vanishing Indian) converge in James
Fenimore Cooper's The Last of the Mohicans. As the title
suggests, the tribe of the Mohicans has been so very diminished
that only two remain, Chingachgook and his son Uncas. This
exhibits the "vanishing Indian" mythology. The tribes of
Indians that are the central focus in Cooper's narrative are the
Mohicans (Delawares) and the Iroquois (Mohawks). These tribes
are depicted in the characters of Chingachgook and Uncas
(Mohicans), and Magua, who even though was born a Huron, has
became a member of the Iroquois federation. According to Cooper,
both of these tribes are vanishing due to the "inroads of
civilization" (Cooper 6). Chingachgook tells Hawkeye when his
son Uncas dies "there will no longer be any of the blood of the
Sagamores" because Uncas is the last of the pure blood Mohicans
(Cooper33). As for the Six Nations of the Iroquois, Cooper
tells the reader in a footnote that:
"There are remnants of all these people still living on lands
secured to them by the state; but they are daily disappearing,
either by deaths or by removals to scenes more congenial to
their habits. In a short time there will be no remains of these
extraordinary people, in those regions in which they dwelt for
centuries" (Cooper 20).
Thus does Cooper romanticize the idea of the "vanishing Indian
myth." In his introduction to the first edition of his novel,
Cooper describes the "native warriors of America" in the
following manner: "In war, he is daring, boastful, cunning,
ruthless, self-denying, and self-devoted; in peace, just,
generous, hospitable, revengeful, superstitious, modest, and
commonly chaste" (Cooper 5).
This type of description of Indians denies their individuality
in human emotions and characteristics. As such, it romanticizes
them by assigning them inviolable personality traits. Of the
narrative's three main Indian characters, Chingachgook and Uncas
are idealized as the "noble warriors" and Magua is romanticized
as the "bloodthirsty savage." None of these characters are
presented in a realistic, humanistic fashion. They are spoken of
in language that portrays them as highly exalted or
irretrievably degraded.
In his first appearance in the novel, Chingachgook is seen
seated on a log, engaged in a debate with Hawkeye. Chingachgook
uses "calm and expressive gestures" and the posture of his body
to "heighten" the effect of his "earnest language" (Cooper 29).
He has reached middle age, but has no "symptoms of decay" that
would suggest a lessening of "his manhood" (Cooper 29).
Furthermore, even though Chingachgook is habitually suspicious,
he is "not only without guile" but is possessed of "sturdy
honesty" (Cooper 30). These physical and mental traits provide
us with the classic image of the strong and stoic Indian
warrior, one who is brave and fearless when necessary but kind
and calm also. Chingachgook's son Uncas is idealized even more
than his father is.
Uncas is "fearless", "dignified," "noble," "proud,"
"determined," "brave," and "constant" (Cooper 53). Even Alice,
who is fearful of all Indians, says of Uncas that she "could
sleep in peace with such a fearless and generous looking youth
for her sentinel" (Cooper 53). And Duncan allows that Uncas is a
"rare and brilliant instance of those natural qualities"
existing in Indians (Cooper 53). This portrayal of Uncas
suggests that he is not like others of his tribe or race; that
he is somehow exalted above the rest. Cooper plays up this
exaltation of Uncas by revealing that he is descended from a
noble chief (implying that Uncas' blood is 'royal') later in the
novel when Uncas is about to be burned at the stake (Cooper 309).
When Uncas is sentenced to death, his friends react in various
ways: Duncan struggles to get free, Hawkeye anxiously looks
around for a way to escape, and Cora throws herself at
Tamenund's feet to plead for mercy for Uncas (Cooper 309). Only
Uncas remains calm and serene. He watches the preparations for
the fire with a "steady eye" and does not resist when the other
Indians come to seize him (Cooper 309). One gets the impression
that if Uncas had not been spared by the discovery of his
tortoise tattoo, he would have went to his death calmly without
saying one word to save himself. This is a highly idealized
portrait of a person, not so would we expect someone to act in
this particular circumstance no matter how brave the person was.
At the opposite side of human nature, Cooper romanticizes the
character of Magua as intrinsically evil and depraved. Other
than being brave and fearless, Magua has no qualities that would
be considered good as possessing. Magua is described as having
the "characteristic stoicism" of his race, but his countenance
exhibits a "sullen fierceness" (Cooper 17). Further Magua's
expression is "cunning," "savage," "repulsive," and having an
eye "which [glistens] like a fiery star" (Cooper 18). Alice is
afraid of Magua, based on his physical appearance, and refers to
him as a "spectre" inhabiting the woods (Cooper 20). Cora tends
to give Magua the benefit of the doubt, even though she first
looks upon him with "pity, admiration, and horror" (Cooper 19).
Even Duncan, who says he knows Magua well and trusts him, tells
Alice not to show any distrust or fear to Magua, or she may
"invite the danger [she] appears to apprehend" (Cooper 21). This
admonition to Alice displays Duncan's tendency to equate Magua
with some species of wild animal, which will attack when sensing
fear.
The idealization of Indians in Last of the Mohicans
exhibits the period's ambivalence towards the first inhabitants
of the Americas. The colonists tended to either romanticize them
as children of God or nature, or as savage, brutal heathens.
This attitude towards the Indians began with Columbus and, in
some degree, still exists today.
Sources
Norton Anthology of American Literature
The Last of the Mohicans